ERGOT POISONING
Ergot poisoning was not suggested as a possible cause for the trials until the late 1970's. Linnda Caporael was the first one to bring this possibility to light. Caporael's article that was published in 1976 is where the majority of this information comes from. Caporael begins by saying, "No mental derangement or fraud seems adequate in understanding how eight girls, raised in the soul-searching Puritan tradition, simultaneously exhibited the same symptoms or conspired together for widespread notoriety" (Caporael, 22). The symptoms of the girls and their testimonies do not appear to have a rational explanation.
Their various symptoms included disorderly speech, odd postures and gestures, and convulsive fits. The symptoms of ergot poisoning include: crawling sensations in the skin, tingling in the fingers, vertigo, tinnitus aurium, headaches, disturbances in sensation, hallucination, painful muscular contractions leading to epileptic convulsions, vomiting, and diarrhea (Caporael, 23). Caporael says that some of the accusers report feeling their "bowels almost pulled out" (Caporael, 25). All of these symptoms appear to fit the description of convulsive ergotism.
Their various symptoms included disorderly speech, odd postures and gestures, and convulsive fits. The symptoms of ergot poisoning include: crawling sensations in the skin, tingling in the fingers, vertigo, tinnitus aurium, headaches, disturbances in sensation, hallucination, painful muscular contractions leading to epileptic convulsions, vomiting, and diarrhea (Caporael, 23). Caporael says that some of the accusers report feeling their "bowels almost pulled out" (Caporael, 25). All of these symptoms appear to fit the description of convulsive ergotism.
Ergot (Claviceps purpura) is a fungus that grows on a variety of grains, especially rye. It grows in a slightly curved, fusiform shape with sclerotia replacing individual grains on the host plant. The sclerotia contains a large number of potent pharmacological agents, known as ergot alkaloids. This alkaloid (with ten percent of the activity of D-LSD) is also found in morning glory seeds. It was used as a ritual hallucinogenic drug by the Aztecs (Caporael, 23).
Ergot favors warm, damp, rainy springs and summers. It is possible for it to infest a crop one year and not appear again for many years. The first medical scientific report was not made until a few years before Salem. The in no reference to ergot in the U.S. before 1807. Dr. John Stearns suggested to a colleague that he should use a powdered form of ergot as a therapeutic agent in childbirth.
There are two types of ergotism: gangrenous and convulsive. We have already looked at the symptoms for convulsive ergotism, and the syptoms of gangrenous ergotism are as the name implies. Extremities show signs of dry gangrene, then follows the loss of those extremities. During the Middle Ages, these type of conditions were called ignis sacer, the holy fire.
When it came to the growing conditions, spring sowing was the number one rule. Bitter winters made fall sowing less successful. Sowing would take place in April and harvesting would take place in August. Even though the grain was stored, it would be months before it was threshed. The threshing might have occurred shortly before Thanksgiving. The symptoms of the children appeared in December 1691, and by the next fall the crisis had ended and there is no mention of anyone else being afflicted. It is highly likely that all the rye was infected. Caporael says, "It is a matter of the extent of infection and the period of time over which the ergot is consumed rather than the mere existence of ergot that determines the potential for ergotism" (Caporael, 23).
Ergot favors warm, damp, rainy springs and summers. It is possible for it to infest a crop one year and not appear again for many years. The first medical scientific report was not made until a few years before Salem. The in no reference to ergot in the U.S. before 1807. Dr. John Stearns suggested to a colleague that he should use a powdered form of ergot as a therapeutic agent in childbirth.
There are two types of ergotism: gangrenous and convulsive. We have already looked at the symptoms for convulsive ergotism, and the syptoms of gangrenous ergotism are as the name implies. Extremities show signs of dry gangrene, then follows the loss of those extremities. During the Middle Ages, these type of conditions were called ignis sacer, the holy fire.
When it came to the growing conditions, spring sowing was the number one rule. Bitter winters made fall sowing less successful. Sowing would take place in April and harvesting would take place in August. Even though the grain was stored, it would be months before it was threshed. The threshing might have occurred shortly before Thanksgiving. The symptoms of the children appeared in December 1691, and by the next fall the crisis had ended and there is no mention of anyone else being afflicted. It is highly likely that all the rye was infected. Caporael says, "It is a matter of the extent of infection and the period of time over which the ergot is consumed rather than the mere existence of ergot that determines the potential for ergotism" (Caporael, 23).
The location of the contaminated rye is appears to be a major factor. Swampy area are great for ergot to develop. Thomas Putnam inherited one of the largest landholding in Salem, and it happened to include swampy meadows. This may have been the area of contamination. Three of the afflicted girls lived in the Putnam residence. It would make perfect sense that they would be exposed to the contaminated rye. Two of the other afflicted girls lived in the Parris household. Samuel Parris was the minister and most of his salary was paid in provisions; probably from the Putnams. There are two cases that are a little harder to argue. The first is Mary Warren. She lived in the Proctor household that was far from the Putnams. John Proctor had his own farm and would have no reason to buy or trade food. It is suggested that Mary would stay overnight in the village. However, there is no way of knowing with whom or for how long. It is strange because Mary was afflicted, accused, and then afflicted again. It is possible that she was ill during the first affliction, then became pressured to be act afflicted during her examination. The second case is of Joseph Bailey. Bailey did not live in Salem. He was traveling through Salem, and it is possible that he stayed with the Putnams. Unfortunately, we do not know if he really did stay with them or if he dined with them. The reason it could be possible is because as Bailey was passing through Salem with his wife, they came across the Proctor residence. Bailey claims that he was struck in the chest twice, unable to speak, and saw a woman following them who then turned into a cow. It is difficult to say if Bailey was truly ill. His wife never had any symptoms. He made that clear during his accusations (Caporael, 25).
Caporael makes a very valid argument. I was ready to believe that this had to be the cause of the girls' afflictions. However, as there will always be, two men (Nicholas Spanos and Jack Gottlieb) wrote an article as a rebuttal to Caporael's initial research. They claim that
Caporael makes a very valid argument. I was ready to believe that this had to be the cause of the girls' afflictions. However, as there will always be, two men (Nicholas Spanos and Jack Gottlieb) wrote an article as a rebuttal to Caporael's initial research. They claim that
First, they argue that areas that have suffered from convulsive ergotism tend to show a severe lack of vitamin A. Apparently, individuals with ergot poisoning that have adequate vitamin A tend to suffer from gangrenous ergotism. Vitamin A appears in fish and dairy. The location of Salem Village to Salem Town suggests that there was plenty of fish and cows. There should not have been a vitamin A deficiency. Even if there was a deficiency, it should not have shown in most of the afflicted girls. They came from wealthier families who would be able to provide the diet needed (Spanos, 1390).
Second, Caporael had stated that wide individual differences explained why everyone in a household would not experience symptoms. According to Spanos and Gottlieb, there are wide individual differences in gangrenous ergotism, but that convulsive ergotism has a tendency to effect everyone. It happened so often that it was thought to be infectious (Spanos, 1390).
Lastly, Spanos and Gottlieb argue the various symptoms of the girls. Caporael claimed that there were records of the afflicted saying that they felt like their bowels were being pulled out. Apparently, this is wrong. Spanos and Gottlieb say they examined all the sources and were unable to find any evidence of vomiting or diarrhea in the afflicted girls. When it comes to the hallucinations, they point out that when someone ingests LSD they experience distorted images, not formed images. There is no evidence in any of the girls' testimonies to suggest that they had perceptual distortions (Spanos, 1391).
Both of these articles make very valid points. I feel like it could go either way. However, this does make it feel like we could be close to a possible logical reason for the Trials.
Second, Caporael had stated that wide individual differences explained why everyone in a household would not experience symptoms. According to Spanos and Gottlieb, there are wide individual differences in gangrenous ergotism, but that convulsive ergotism has a tendency to effect everyone. It happened so often that it was thought to be infectious (Spanos, 1390).
Lastly, Spanos and Gottlieb argue the various symptoms of the girls. Caporael claimed that there were records of the afflicted saying that they felt like their bowels were being pulled out. Apparently, this is wrong. Spanos and Gottlieb say they examined all the sources and were unable to find any evidence of vomiting or diarrhea in the afflicted girls. When it comes to the hallucinations, they point out that when someone ingests LSD they experience distorted images, not formed images. There is no evidence in any of the girls' testimonies to suggest that they had perceptual distortions (Spanos, 1391).
Both of these articles make very valid points. I feel like it could go either way. However, this does make it feel like we could be close to a possible logical reason for the Trials.